US Punitive Expedition During the Mexican Revolution

US Punitive Expedition During the Mexican Revolution Issues between the United States and Mexico began shortly after the beginning of the 1910 Mexican Revolution. With various factions threatening foreign business interests and citizens, US military interventions, such as the 1914 occupation of Veracruz occurred. With the ascendency of Venustiano Carranza, the United States elected to recognize his government on October 19, 1915. This decision angered Francisco Pancho Villa who commanded revolutionary forces in northern Mexico. In retribution, he began attacks against American citizens including killing seventeen aboard a train in Chihuahua. Not content with these attacks, Villa mounted a major assault on Columbus, NM. Attacking on the night of March 9, 1916, his men struck the town and a detachment of the 13th US Cavalry Regiment. The resulting fighting left eighteen Americans dead and eight wounded, while Villa lost around 67 killed. In the wake of this cross-border incursion, public outrage led President Woodrow Wilson to order the military to make an effort to capture Villa. Working with Secretary of War Newton Baker, Wilson directed that a punitive expedition be formed and supplies and troops began arriving at Columbus. Across the Border To lead the expedition, US Army Chief of Staff Major General Hugh Scott selected Brigadier General John J. Pershing. A veteran of the Indian Wars and Philippine Insurrection, Pershing was also known for his diplomatic skills and tact. Attached to Pershings staff was a young lieutenant who would later become famous, George S. Patton. While Pershing worked to marshal his forces, Secretary of State Robert Lansing lobbied Carranza into allowing American troops to cross the border. Though reluctant, Carranza agreed as long as US forces did not advance beyond the state of Chihuahua. On March 15, Pershings forces crossed the border in two columns with one departing from Columbus and the other from Hachita. Consisting of infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineers, and logistical units, Pershings command pushed south seeking Villa and established a headquarters at Colonia Dublan near the Casas Grandes River. Though promised use of the Mexican Northwestern Railway, this was not forthcoming and Pershing soon faced a logistical crisis. This was solved through the use of truck trains which used Dodge trucks to ferry supplies the one hundred miles from Columbus. Frustration in the Sands Included in the expedition was Captain Benjamin D. Foulois First Aero Squadron. Flying JN-3/4 Jennys, they provided scouting and reconnaissance services for Pershings command. With a weeks head start, Villa dispersed his men into the rugged countryside of northern Mexico. As a result, early American efforts to locate him met with failure. While many of the local populace disliked Villa, they were more annoyed by the American incursion and failed to offer assistance. Two weeks into the campaign, elements of the 7th US Cavalry fought a minor engagement with Villistas near San Geronimo. The situation was further complicated on April 13, when American forces were attacked by Carranzas Federal troops near Parral. Though his men drove off the Mexicans, Pershing elected to concentrate his command at Dublan and focus on sending out smaller units to find Villa. Some success was had on May 14, when a detachment led by Patton located the commander of Villas bodyguard Julio Crdenas at San Miguelito. In the resulting skirmish, Patton killed Crdenas. The next month, Mexican-American relations suffered another blow when Federal troops engaged two troops of the 10th US Cavalry near Carrizal. In the fighting, seven Americans were killed and 23 captured. These men were returned to Pershing a short time later. With Pershings men searching in vain for Villa and tensions rising, Scott and Major General Frederick Funston began negotiations with Carranzas military advisor, Alvaro Obregon, at El Paso, TX. These talks ultimately led to an agreement where American forces would withdraw if Carranza would control Villa. As Pershings men continued their search, their rear was covered by 110,000 National Guardsmen that Wilson called into service in June 1916. These men were deployed along the border. With talks progressing and troops defending the border against raids, Pershing assumed a more defensive position and patrolled less aggressively. The presence of American forces, along with combat losses and desertions, effectively limited Villas ability to pose a meaningful threat. Through the summer, American troops battled boredom at Dublan through sporting activities, gambling, and imbibing at the numerous cantinas. Other needs were met through an officially sanctioned and monitored brothel that was established within the American camp. Pershings forces remained in place through the fall. The Americans Withdraw On January 18, 1917, Funston informed Pershing that American troops would be withdrawn at an early date. Pershing agreed with the decision and began moving his 10,690 men north towards the border on January 27. Forming his command at Palomas, Chihuahua, it re-crossed the border on February 5 en route to Fort Bliss, TX. Officially concluded, the Punitive Expedition had failed in its objective to capture Villa. Pershing privately complained that Wilson had imposed too many restrictions on the expedition, but also admitted that Villa had outwitted and out-bluffed [him] at every turn. Though the expedition failed to capture Villa, it did provide a valuable training experience for the 11,000 men who took part. One of the largest military American military operations since the Civil War, it provided lessons to be utilized as the United States inched closer and closer to World War I. Also, it served as an effective projection of American power which aided in halting raids and aggression along the border.

J.J. Thomson Atomic Theory and Biography

J.J. Thomson Atomic Theory and Biography Sir Joseph John Thomson or J.J. Thomson is best known as the man who discovered the electron. J.J. Thomson Biographical Data Tomson was born December 18, 1856, Cheetham Hill, near Manchester, England. He died  August 30, 1940, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England. Thomson is buried in Westminster Abbey, near Sir Isaac Newton. J.J. Thomson is credited with the discovery of the electron, the negatively-charged particle in the atom. He is known for the Thomson atomic theory. Many scientists studied the electric discharge of a  cathode ray tube. It was Thomsons interpretation that was important. He took the deflection of the rays by the magnets and charged plates as evidence of bodies much smaller than atoms. Thomson calculated these bodies had a large charge to mass ratio and he estimated the value of the charge itself. In 1904, Thomson proposed a model of the atom as a sphere of positive matter with electrons positioned based on electrostatic forces. So, he not only discovered the electron but determined it was a fundamental part of an atom. Notable awards Thomson received include: Nobel Prize in Physics (1906) in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases  Knighted (1908)Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge (1884-1918) Thomson Atomic Theory Thomsons discovery of the electron completely changed the way people viewed atoms. Up until the end of the 19th century, atoms were thought to be tiny solid spheres. In 1903, Thomson proposed a model of the atom consisting of positive and negative charges, present in equal amounts so that an atom would be electrically neutral. He proposed the atom was a sphere, but the positive and negative charges were embedded within it. Thomsons model came to be called the plum pudding model or chocolate chip cookie model. Modern scientists understand atoms consist of a nucleus of positively-charged protons and neutral neutrons, with negatively-charged electrons orbiting the nucleus. Yet, Thomsons model is important because it introduced the notion that an atom consisted of charged particles. Interesting Facts About J.J. Thomson Prior to Thomsons discovery of electrons, scientists believed the atom was the smallest fundamental unit of matter.Thomson called the particle he discovered corpuscles rather than electrons.Thomsons masters work,  Treatise on the motion of vortex rings, provides a mathematical description of William Thomsons vortex theory of atoms. He was awarded the Adams Prize in 1884.Thomson discovered the natural radioactivity of potassium in 1905.In 1906, Thomson demonstrated a hydrogen atom had only a single electron.Thomsons father intended for J.J. to be an engineer, but the family did not have the funds to support the apprenticeship. So, Joseph John attended  Owens College in Manchester, and then Trinity College in Cambridge, where he became a mathematical physicist.  In 1890, Thomson married one of his students, Rose Elisabeth Paget. They had a son and a daughter. The son, Sir George Paget Thomson, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1937.Thomson also investigated the nature of pos itively-charged particles. These experiments led to the development of the mass spectrograph. Thomson was closely aligned with chemists of the time. His atomic theory helped explain atomic bonding and the structure of molecules. Thomson published an important monograph in 1913 urging the use of the mass spectrograph in chemical analysis.Many consider J.J. Thomsons greatest contribution to science to be his role as a teacher. Seven of his research assistants, as well as his own son, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. One of his best-known students was Ernest Rutherford, who succeeded Thomson as Cavendish Professor of Physics.